1 FLAME University, Pune, Maharashtra, India
2Dakshin Foundation, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
#andrea.phillott@flame.edu.in
India is home to regionally important nesting populations of green (Chelonia mydas), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) turtles. The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 protects nesting sea turtles, their eggs, and hatchlings. However, there has been significant consumption of turtles and eggs, in addition to threats from predators and coastal development (as described below) over time. Hatcheries have been employed as an ex situ conservation strategy in India to mitigate such threats since at least 1973 and 1974 (Valliappan & Whitaker, 1974; Biswas et al., 1977 in Pandav et al., 2006), but details of their specific operations are sparse. Partially filling this knowledge gap are narrative accounts of sea turtle hatchery operations in India presented by Shanker & Kutty (2005) and Shanker (2015) and this paper, which compiles all available records of sea turtle hatcheries in India to infer their potential use as a conservation strategy from proportion of known nests protected and hatching success.
We searched the databases Scopus, Google Scholar and JSTOR, the Sea Turtles of India bibliography (https://www.seaturtlesofindia.org/library/bibliography/), and professional newsletters Indian Ocean Turtle Newsletter and Marine Turtle Newsletter for publications and reports on sea turtle hatcheries operating in Indian states and territories at any time to late 2017. More hatcheries may have been in operation than those described in these sources, as the news media (for example, Arockiaraj, 2017) name hatcheries at locations not described in published literature or reports. However, we chose not to include hatcheries described in news stories due to questions about the reliability of location, number of nests or eggs protected, and/or number of hatchlings released.
Threats to sea turtle nests and eggs that contributed to the use of an ex situ conservation strategy and the details available for hatchery operations are summarised below (in alphabetical order by location; Tables 1-8). As many records overlap in geographic area, time, and data sets, it is not possible to quantify the number of hatcheries but the use and productivity of hatcheries as an ex situ conservation strategy may be inferred.
There is little publicly available information about hatcheries operating in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Andrews et al. (2001) describe hatcheries to which green, hawksbill, and leatherback turtle nests of unknown numbers were relocated in the decade prior to their study commencing in the 2000/01 nesting season: Ramanagar Beach (North Andaman), Smith Island (North Andaman), Cuthbert Bay (Middle Andaman Island), Rutland Island (South Andaman), and Galathea Beach (Great Nicobar Island). However, relocation of nests to hatcheries at Smith Island and Cuthbert Bay ceased in the 2000/01 nesting season due to concern about the low hatching success (30-45%) when compared with in situ nests (80-100%). In 2001/02, hatchery practices at Galathea Beach were modified (further information not provided) so that hatching success rose to 75-100% from that previously recorded (25-35%) (Andrews et al., 2001). Nests laid below the high tide line at Galathea Beach continued to be relocated to the hatchery in 2003/04 and 2004/05 nesting seasons (Andrews et al., 2006). A paper by Jadeja et al. (2016) indicates the ongoing operations of a hatchery at Galathea Bay after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
Threats to sea turtle eggs and hatchlings in the region include human consumption (note: indigenous peoples of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are exempt from the Wildlife (Protection) Act) and predation by water monitors, feral dogs and pigs. Andrews et al. (2001) estimated that feral dogs depredated >70% of eggs and hatchlings at some locations, with pigs destroying an additional 10% of nests and consuming emerging leatherback hatchlings.
Andhra Pradesh (AP) supports sporadically high numbers (up to ~10,000 per season) of olive ridley turtles, but as solitary nesting events and not the mass nesting arribadas that occur in the adjacent state of Odisha. Described threats to sea turtle nests and hatchlings in AP include human consumption of eggs, depredation by feral dogs, pigs, foxes, hyenas, and jackals, light pollution, and aquaculture development (Rao, 1985; Tripathy, 2001; Tripathy et al., 2006, Saravanan et al., 2013).
Hatcheries from different areas were identified from literature about sea turtles in AP (Table 1). There is little information available about the hatchery in East Godavari District, but reports indicate that ex situ conservation of turtle nests in Visakhapatnam district commenced in 2010/11, after which all possible nests were relocated to hatcheries. The number and location of hatcheries has since varied from year to year (VSPCA, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017) and hatching success is high (usually >80%) when compared with that of hatcheries in other locations.
Table 1. Records of olive ridley nests relocated to sea turtle hatcheries in Andhra Pradesh. Numbers of nests, eggs, hatchlings, and hatching success may not be representative of the entire nesting seasons indicated. ‘-’ indicates no information reported. An.- annually. Av.- Average.
| Location | Nesting Season/s | # Nests &/or # Eggs | Hatching Success (HS) &/or # Hatchlings | Source |
| East Godavari district, Sacramento Island | 2010/11 | – | – | Saravanan et al., 2013 |
| Visakhapatnam district, Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam | 2010/11 | 54 nests; 5,832 eggs | Av. HS 84% | VSPCA, 2011 |
| Visakhapatnam district, Bheemli, Jodugullapalem, Rushikonda & Visakhapatnam | 2011/12 | 181 nests; 21,343 eggs | Av. HS 63% | VSPCA, 2012 |
| Visakhapatnam district, Jodigullapalem and Yoga Village | 2012/13 | 74,586 eggs | Av. HS 87% | VSPCA, 2013 |
| Visakhapatnam district, Jodigullapalem and RK Beach | 2014/15 | 320 nests; 38,793 eggs | Av. HS 86% | VSPCA, 2015; VSPCA, 2016 |
| 2015/16 | 343 nests; 39,604 eggs | Av. HS 83% | ||
| Visakhapatnam district, Jodigullapalem, Lumbini Park, Peddanagaya palem, RK Beach & Tanthidi | 2016/17 | 705 nests; 78,494 eggs | Av. HS 83% | VSPCA, 2017 |
*Hatching success in 2011/12 was potentially reduced due to inundation of the hatcheries after a tsunami and extreme high tides in March 2012, resulting from the 2012 earthquakes near Indonesia
Nests and hatchlings in Goa may be threatened by human consumption of eggs, light pollution, construction of hotels and resorts, sand mining and non-biodegradable waste on nesting beaches (Giri & Chaturvedi, 2006; Giri et al., 2006). Hatcheries in Goa (Table 2) appear to protect all nests laid on those, and some from adjacent, beaches (Giri & Chaturvedi, 2006; Giri et al., 2006). The reported hatching success is high (>~75%) in comparison to other locations.
Table 2. Records of olive ridley nests relocated to sea turtle hatcheries in Goa. Numbers of nests, eggs, hatchlings, and hatching success may not be representative of the entire nesting seasons indicated. ‘-’ indicates no information reported. Av.- average.
| Location | Nesting Season/s | # Nests &/or# Eggs | Hatching Success (HS) &/or # Hatchlings | Sources |
| Agonda | 2000/01 | 9 nests | Av. HS 94% | Giri & Chaturvedi, 2006; Giri et al., 2006 |
| 2003/04 | 6 nests | – | ||
| Galgibaga | 1999/2000 | 10 nests | Av. HS 80% | Giri & Chaturvedi, 2006; Giri et al., 2006 |
| 2000/01 | 33 nests | Av. HS 75% | ||
| 2001/02 | 19 nests | – | ||
| 2002/03 | 14 nests | – |
Green and olive ridley turtles nest on the Gujarat coast, and nests may be relocated to hatcheries in the state to mitigate threats from human consumption of eggs, depredation by domestic dogs, wild pigs, monitor lizards, hyenas and jackals, and pollution such as oil, industrial effluent, sewage, and debris (Sunderraj et al., 2006a). Many of the known nests on monitored beaches in Gujarat are protected in hatcheries (see Sunderraj et al., 2006; Goswamy et al., 2013) but large number of nests will also remain in situ. Hatching success of nests relocated to hatcheries ranges from ~20-90% (Table 3; note the record of leatherback eggs also).
Table 3. Records of nests relocated to sea turtle hatcheries in Gujarat. Locations have been adjusted to their current name. Numbers of nests, eggs, hatchlings, and hatching success may not be representative of the entire nesting seasons indicated. ‘-’ indicates no information reported. An.- annually. Av.- Average.
| Location/(District, Beach/Village) | Turtles | Nesting Season/s | # Nests &/or # Eggs | Hatching Success (HS) &/or # Hatchlings | Source |
| Bhavnagar district, Hathab | Green, olive ridley | 1987/88-1989/90 | 10,689 eggs | Av. HS 65% | Sunderraj et al., 2002 |
| Bhavnagar district, Piram Is. | Green, olive ridley | 1987/88-1989/90 | 40,195 eggs | Av. HS 69% | Sunderraj et al., 2002 |
| Junagadh coast | Green, olive ridley | 2004/05-2010/11 | 371 nests, 31,507 eggs | Av. HS 84% | Sunderraj et al., 2013 |
| Junagadh district, Kodinar | Green | 2004/05 | 4,170 eggs | Av. HS 80% | Goswamy et al., 2013 |
| 2006/07 | 2,982 eggs | Av. HS 76% | |||
| 2008/09-2010/11 | 20, 847 eggs | Av. HS 21% | |||
| Junagadh district, Mangrol (inland) | – | Visited in 1987 | – | – | Frazier, 1987 |
| Junagadh district, Sapur Beach (inland) | – | Visited in 1987 | – | – | Frazier, 1987 |
| Junagadh district, Madhavpur | Green, olive ridley | 1993/94-1996/97 | – | 49,161 hatchlings | Frazier, 1987; Sunderraj et al., 2001, 2002, 2013 |
| 1998/99-1999/2000 | – | 98,005 hatchlings | |||
| 2005/06-2011/12 | 34,915 eggs | Av. HS 81% | |||
| Kachchh district | Olive ridley | 2000 (?) | 37 nests | – | Sunderraj et al., 2001 |
| Kachchh district, Mandvi | Olive ridley | 1990/91-1992/93 | 6,700 eggs | Av. HS 64% | Sunderraj et al., 2002, 2006b, 2013; Meena et al., 2007, 2009 |
| Olive ridley | 1999/2000 | 37 nests, 4,395 eggs | – | ||
| Green, olive ridley | 2000/01 | 4,399 eggs | Av. HS 41% | ||
| Olive ridley | 2001/02 | 1,273 eggs | Av. HS 32% | ||
| Olive ridley | 2004/05-2005/06 | 2,002 eggs | Av. HS 59% | ||
| – | 2006/07-2007/08 | 1,491 eggs | Av. HS 68% | ||
| Green | 2007/8-2011/12 | 69 nests, 7,752 eggs | Av. HS 79% | ||
| Kachchh district, Nalia | Olive ridley | 1985/86-1986/87 | 199 eggs | Av. HS 72% | Meena et al., 2007 |
| Olive ridley, leatherback | 2000/01 | 321 eggs | Av. HS 48% | ||
| Olive ridley | 2001/02 | 210 eggs | Av. HS 66% | ||
| Olive ridley | 2004/05 | 533 eggs | Av. HS 69% | ||
| Green | 2005/06 | 135 eggs | Av. HS 53% | ||
| Kachchh district, Nana-Layja | – | 2005/06 | 108 eggs | Av. HS 60% | Meena et al., 2007 |
| Porbander district, Positra | Green | 2010/11 | 13 nests | – | Goswamy et al., 2013 |
| Porbander district, Rangbai | Green | 2004/05 | 82 nests, 8,188 eggs | Av. HS 73% | Sunderraj et al., 2006b, 2013 |
| Olive ridley | 2004/05 | 23 nests, 2,514 eggs | Av. HS 767% | ||
| Green, olive ridley | 2007/08-2011/12 | 96 nests, 9,080 eggs | Av. HS 86% | ||
| Porbander district, Tukda Miyani | Green | 2004/05 | 45 nests, 4,545 eggs | Av. HS 71% | Sunderraj et al., 2006b |
| Olive ridley | 2004/05 | 24 nests, 2,425 eggs | Av. HS 69% |
Olive ridley turtles (and potentially greens or leatherbacks- see Sharath, 2006) nest sporadically in Karnataka. Hatcheries in the state (Table 4) may operate for short periods of time (as little as a year) and protect low numbers of nests annually (K. Shanker and M. Manoharakrishnan, pers.comm.). Threats to nests and hatchlings include human consumption of eggs, light pollution, depredation by domestic and feral dogs, and beach erosion and loss due to the construction of seawalls (see Sharath, 2006). Nest counts for Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, and Uttara Kannada districts (Sharath, 2006; Pandit & Soans, 2013) suggest that all known nests may be relocated to hatcheries, where the average hatching success varies between ~15-97% (Table 4).
Table 4. Records of olive ridley turtle nests relocated to hatcheries in Karnataka. Locations have been adjusted to their current name. Numbers of nests, eggs, hatchlings, and hatching success may not be representative of the entire nesting seasons indicated. ‘-’ indicates no information reported. Av.- average.
| Location/(District, Beach/Village) | Nesting Season/s | # Nests &/or # Eggs | Hatching Success (HS) &/or # Hatchlings | Source |
| Karnataka coast, 40 unnamed locations | 1984 | – | – | Appayya,1985 (in Sharath, 2006); Anonymous, 2011 |
| Karnataka coast, 3 unnamed locations | 1985? | – | 15,000 hatchlings | |
| Dakshina Kannada district, Baindur | 1985/86 | – | – | Frazier, 1989 |
| Dakshina Kannada district, Thrasi | 1984/85-1986/87 | 89 nests | Range HS 20-94% | Frazier, 1989 |
| Udupi district, Unnamed location | 2004-2006 | 2,348 eggs | Av. HS 76% | McCann, 2007 |
| Udupi district, Bengre Beach | 1984/85 | – | 2,560 hatchlings | Madhyastha et al., 1986 (in Sharath, 2006); Frazier, 1989 |
| 1986/87 | 1,612 eggs | Av. HS 90% | ||
| Uttara Kannada district, 3 locations | 2005/06 | – | >5,000 hatchlings | Pandit & Soans, 2013 |
| 2007/08-2010/11 | 186 nests | – | ||
| Uttara Kannada district, Apsarakonda | 2006/07 | 9 nests, 846 eggs | – | Pandit, 2008; Chandran et al., 2012 |
| 2007/08-2008/09 | 1,617 eggs | Av. HS 53% | ||
| Uttara Kannada district, Devbag | 2001/02 | 616 eggs | Av. HS 16% | Kurian & Nayak, 2003 |
| Uttara Kannada district, Dhareshwara | 2006/07 | 6 nests, 704 eggs | – | Pandit, 2008; Anonymous, 2011; Chandran et al., 2012 |
| 2007/08-2008/09 | 4,739 eggs | Av. HS 41% | ||
| Uttara Kannada district, Gangavali | 1985/86 | – | – | Frazier, 1989; Pandit, 2008; Anonymous, 2011; Chandran et al., 2012 |
| 2006/07 | 8 nests, 677 eggs | – | ||
| 2007/08-2008/09 | 1,959 eggs | Av. HS 48% | ||
| Uttar Kannada district, Haldipur | 1985/86 | – | – | Frazier, 1989; Anonymous, 2011; Chandran et al., 2012 |
| 2006/07 | – | – | ||
| 2007/08-2008/09 | 28 nests, 2,845 eggs | Av. HS 43% | ||
| Uttara Kannada district, Heeregutti | 2004-2006 | – | Total 2,500 hatchlings | Pandit & Soans, 2013 |
| Uttara Kannada district, Holadgadde Beach | 1985/86 | – | – | Frazier, 1989 |
| Uttara Kannada district, Hosahitlu (Manki) | 2007/08-2008/09 | 10 nests, 897 eggs | Av. HS 60% | Chandran et al., 2012 |
| Uttara Kannada district, Jali Village | 1985/86-1986/87 | 69 nests | – | Frazier, 1989 |
| Uttara Kannada district, Kade Beach | 1985/86 | – | – | Frazier, 1989 |
| Uttara Kannada district, Kadle (Holangadde) | 2006/07 | 7 nests, 712 eggs | – | Pandit, 2008; Anonymous, 2011; Chandran et al., 2012 |
| 2007/08 | 1,802 eggs | Av. HS 50% | ||
| Uttara Kannada district, Kagal | 2006/07 | – | – | Anonymous, 2011a; Chandran et al., 2012 |
| 2007/08-2008/09 | 3 nests, 278 eggs | Av. HS 97% | ||
| Uttara Kannada district, Kasarkod Beach | 1985/86 | – | – | Frazier, 1989 |
| Uttara Kannada district, Kodibag Beach | Est. 2003 | – | – | Pandit & Soanes, 2013 |
| Uttara Kannada district, Manki | 2006/07 | – | – | Anonymous, 2011 |
Olive ridley eggs and hatchlings in Kerala experience similar threats to those elsewhere in India: human consumption of eggs (Dileepkumar & Jayakumar, 2006; Bhupathy, 2007), depredation by feral dogs and jackals (Damodar, 2002), light pollution, and beach erosion and loss due to the construction of seawalls (Pareparambil & Mathew, 2013). We identified sea turtle hatcheries from publications and reports, with ~30-90% of eggs successfully hatching (Table 5). Only a fraction of the coast is monitored (e.g. only 8km of beach on the 71km of coastline Kozhikode district is monitored (Pareparambil & Mathew, 2013) but likely represents the limited nesting habitat available due to the extensive construction of sea walls (Dileepkumar & Jayakumar, 2006).
Table 5. Records of olive ridley nests relocated to sea turtle hatcheries in Kerala. Locations have been adjusted to their current name. Numbers of nests, eggs, hatchlings, and hatching success may not be representative of the entire nesting seasons indicated. ‘-’ indicates no information reported. An.- annually. Av.- Average.
| Location/(District, Beach/Village) | Nesting Season/s | # Nests &/or # Eggs | Hatching Success (HS) &/or # Hatchlings | Source |
| Calicut district, Kolavi & Kasaragod district, Thaikadappuram | 2002/03-2006/07 | 104 nests, 13,314 eggs | Av. HS 75% | Kumar, 2007 |
| Kozhikode district, Kolavipalam | ||||
| Kasaragod district, Thaikadappuram | 2002/03-2013/14 | >151 nests | Av. HS 74% | Laladhas et al., 2017 |
| Kozhikode district, Kolavipalam | 1996 onwards | An. 40-60 nests | – | Kutty, 2001; Bhupathy et al., 2006; Bhupathy, 2007; Laladhas et al., 2017 |
| 1998-2012/13 | 450 nests, 44,006 eggs | Av. HS 80% | ||
| 1998/99-2015/16 | Range 322-6,264 eggs | Range HS 33-89% | ||
| Thrissur district, Palapetty beach | 2015/16 | – | – | Sreeram et al., 2016 |
The number of nests protected over time at hatcheries in Maharashtra is relatively low (see Table 6), reflecting the low numbers of nesting olive ridley and, sporadically, green turtles in the state (Giri & Chaturvedi, 2006). Katdare (2013) reported that all known nests on monitored beaches are transferred to hatcheries, with the average hatching success around 50% (Table 6). Conservation of sea turtle nests in hatcheries occurs to mitigate threats from human consumption of eggs, chemical pollution, and sewage (Giri & Chaturvedi, 2006).
Table 6. Records of olive ridley nests relocated to sea turtle hatcheries in Maharashtra. Locations have been adjusted to their current name. Numbers of nests, eggs, hatchlings, and hatching success may not be representative of the entire nesting seasons indicated. ‘-’ indicates no information reported. Av.- Average.
| Location/(District, Beach/Village) | Nesting Season/s | # Nests &/or # Eggs | Hatching Success (HS) &/or # Hatchlings | Source |
| Raigad district, Akshi | To 2008 | 1 nest | – | Sanaye & Katdare, 2009 |
| Raigad district, Diveagar | 2004/05 | 4 nests | 237 hatchlings | Giri et al., 2006; Sanaye & Katdare, 2009; Katdare, 2012 |
| To 2008 | 22 nests | – | ||
| 2011/12 | 6 nests | – | ||
| Raigad district, Harihareshwar | 2004/05 | 4 nests, 455 eggs | Av. HS 56% | Giri et al., 2006; Sanaye & Katdare, 2009; Katdare, 2012 |
| 2005/06 | 4 nests | – | ||
| 2011/12 | 6 nests | – | ||
| Raigad district, Maral | To 2008 | 8 nests | – | Sanaye & Katdare, 2009; Katdare, 2012 |
| 2011/12 | 8 nests | – | ||
| Raigad district, Murud Harnai | To 2008 | 3 nests | – | Sanaye & Katdare, 2009 |
| Raigad district, Murud Janjira | 2005/06 | 1 nest | – | Sanaye & Katdare, 2009 |
| Ratnagiri district, 5 unnamed locations | 2002/02-2006/07 | 214 nests | >9,000 hatchlings | Katdare, 2008 |
| Ratnagiri district, Anjarle | To 2008 | 10 nests | – | Sanaye & Katdare, 2009; Katdare, 2012 |
| 2011/12 | 1 nest | – | ||
| Ratnagiri district, Dabhol | 2004/05 | 4 nests, 410 eggs | Av. HS 57% | Giri et al., 2006; Sanaye & Katdare, 2009; Katdare, 2012 |
| To 2008 | 23 nests | – | ||
| 2011/12 | 2 nests | – | ||
| Ratnagiri district, Guhagar | 2011/12 | 4 nests | – | Katdare, 2012 |
| Ratnagiri district, Kelshi | 2004/05 | 1 nest, 51 eggs | Av. HS 28% | Giri et al., 2006; Sanaye & Katdare, 2009; Katdare, 2012 |
| To 2008 | 9 nests | – | ||
| 2011/12 | 1 nest | – | ||
| Ratnagiri district, Kolthare | 2004/05 | 322 eggs | Av. HS 26% | Giri et al., 2006; Sanaye & Katdare, 2009; Katdare, 2012 |
| To 2008 | 21 nests | – | ||
| 2011/12 | 5 nests | – | ||
| Ratnagiri district, Sandkhol | 2005/06 | 1 nest | – | Sanaye & Katdare, 2009 |
| Ratnagiri district, Tavsal | 2011/12 | 2 nests | – | Katdare, 2012 |
| Ratnagiri district, Velas | 2002/03-2004/05 | 94 nests, 9,868 eggs | Av. HS 50% | Katdare & Mone, 2003; Giri et al., 2006; Katdare, 2012 |
| 2011/12 | 15 nests | – | ||
| Sindhudurg district, 5-11 unnamed locations | 2007/08-2013/14 | 7,343 eggs | Av. HS 54% | Andhare & Hatkar, 2015 |
| Sindhudurg district, Bhogave, Katvan, Mochemad, Shiroda, Tambaldeg, Tarkarli, Vayangani | To 2008 | 10 nests | – | Sanaye & Katdare, 2009; Sanaye & Pawar, 2009 |
Olive ridley turtle arribadas or mass nesting events have been reported from three beaches in Odisha, Devi River mouth, Gahirmatha and Rushikulya, while much of the rest of the state’s coastline supports solitary nesting turtles of the same species (see Pandav et al., 2006; Kar & Peters, 2013). As the mass nesting events may exceed 1 lakh (i.e. 100,000) individual turtles annually, only a small proportion of the nests laid in Odisha each year are likely to be relocated to a hatchery. We found records of hatcheries in four districts, but only one specific location (Table 7). Limited information about hatching success is available, but suggests that a high proportion (>90%) of relocated eggs hatched in two years of study.
Table 7. Records of olive ridley nests relocated to sea turtle hatcheries in Odisha. Numbers of nests, eggs, hatchlings, and hatching success may not be representative of the entire nesting seasons indicated. ‘-’ indicates no information reported. An.- annually. Av.- Average.
| Location | Nesting Season/s | # Nests &/or # Eggs | Hatching Success (HS) &/or # Hatchlings | Source |
| Ganjam district, Ramayapatana | 2012/13 | 195 nests | Av. HS 95% | Behera & Kar, 2013 |
| Ganjam district, Rushikulya hatchery* | 2009-16 | ~30 nests | Av. HS 63% | Chandarana et al., 2017 |
| Jagatsinghpur district | – | – | – | Kar & Peters, 2013 |
| Kendrapara district | – | – | – | Kar & Peters, 2013 |
| Puri district | – | – | – | Kar & Peters, 2013 |
*nests collected from Purunabandha, Gokharkuda and Podampetta beaches
Only olive ridley turtles (but possibly also leatherbacks; Arockiaraj, 2017) have been reported nesting in Tamil Nadu in recent years (see Saravanan et al., 2013), and nests and hatchlings are vulnerable to human consumption of eggs (>95% of nests; Bhupathy & Saravanan, 2006) which may be collected by professional poachers, and depredation by jackals and domestic dogs (Bhupathy et al., 2006). Hatcheries (Table 8) have been used during the 45 years of near continuous monitoring and protection of nests on beaches adjacent to Chennai by the Madras Snake Park Trust, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Forest Department, and Students’ Sea Turtle Conservation Network. Many of the known nests laid on Besant Nagar and Marina beaches are relocated to hatcheries (see Shanker, 2003; Arun, 2011; Arun, 2013), and a comparison of annual numbers of nests on monitored beaches in Nagapattinam (17 nests in 2003/04, 30 nests in 2004/05, and 37 nests in 2011/12- Saravanan et al., 2013) with the number of nests relocated to hatcheries in the district (Table 8) suggests the same situation. The reported hatching success varies among hatcheries, from ~33%-93%.
Table 8. Records of olive ridley nests relocated to sea turtle hatcheries in Tamil Nadu. Numbers of nests, eggs, hatchlings, and hatching success may not be representative of the entire nesting season/s indicated. ‘-’ indicates no information reported. An.- annually. Av.- Average.
| Location/(District, Beach/Village) | Nesting Season/s | # Nests &/or # Eggs | Hatching Success (HS) &/or # Hatchlings | Source |
| Chennai district, Adyar River to 30km south | 1988/89-1991/92 | 504 nests, 59, 472 eggs | Av. HS 66% | Shanker,1994 |
| Chennai district, Besant Nagar & Marina Beaches | 1989-2011 | 134 nests | 43,106 hatchlings | Shanker, 2003; Arun, 2011; Arun, 2013 |
| 2013 | 285 nests | 22,000 hatchlings | ||
| Chennai district, Injambakkam | – | 44 nests | – | Anonymous, 1982; Dharini, 2007 |
| 2007 | 1 nest, 100 eggs | Av. HS 93% | ||
| Chennai district, Kovalam | 1978-1983 | 1,014 nests | Av. HS 33% | Silas & Rajagopalan, 1984 |
| Chennai district, Madras Snake Park Trust | 1974-77 | 197 nests | – | Bhupathy et al., 2006 |
| Chennai district, Nainar Kuppam | 2006, 2007 | 20 nests, 2,037 eggs | Av. HS 64% | Dharini, 2007 |
| Chennai district, Nilankarai | 1998-99 | 69 nests | ~6,000 hatchlings | Gopal et al., 2000 |
| Chennai district, Panaiyur Kuppam | 2006, 2007 | 10 nests, 1,137 eggs | Av. HS 21% | Dharini, 2007 |
| Chennai district, Periya Neelankarai | 2006, 2007 | 6 nests, 718 eggs | Av. HS 72% | Dharini, 2007 |
| Chennai district, Thiruvanmiyur | 1973/74 | 10 nests, 1,152 eggs | Av. HS 73% | Valliappan & Whitaker, 1974; Whitaker, 1979 |
| 1974/75-78/79 | 197 nests, 21,760 eggs | Av. HS 60% | ||
| Nagapattinam district, Point Calimere | 2000 | 14 nests, 1,586 eggs | Av. HS 76% | Baruah, 2001 |
| Nagapattinam district, Point Calimere, Arcotthurai & Vanavan mahadevi | 1982/83 | 30,046 eggs | Av. HS 81% | Rahaman et al., 1985 |
| Nagapattinam district, Point Calimere, Vanavan mahadevi & Vizhundamavadii | 1983/84 | 30,771 eggs | Av. HS 84% | Rahaman et al., 1985 |
| Nagapattinam district, Koolaiyar, Madavamedu, Point Calimere, Tharangambadi & Vanagiri | 2005/06-2008/09 | 14,366 eggs | Av. HS 49% | Velusamy & Sundararaju, 2009 |
| Union Territory of Puducherry, Puducherry | – | – | – | Sivakumar et al., 2016 |
Olive ridley turtles nest in low densities on beaches of the mainland and islands throughout the Sunderbans in West Bengal (see Bhadury et al., 2013). Threats to sea turtle nests and hatchlings include human consumption of eggs (Raut & Nandi, 1988), and depredation of ~50% of nests by animals such as water monitors and wild boar (Gani, 2000; Chowdhury et al., 2006; Bhadury et al., 2013).
Some of the early studies in India on sea turtle egg, hatchling, and incubation parameters were conducted on nests relocated to three hatcheries in West Bengal (Table 9). The most recent estimates of nest numbers in the state were 1,564 nests in the 2000/01 nesting season and 87 nests in 2001/02 (Chowdhury et al., 2006) while no nests were found during a survey late in the 2010/11 season (Bhadury et al., 2013). Therefore, it appears that a relatively low proportion of nests in West Bengal may have been relocated to hatcheries in the past. The reported hatching success is low (~10-50%), potentially due to the long-distance transport of eggs from islands (Kalash, Kanak, Mechua and Sainmari- Raut & Nandi, 1985; Chowdhury et al., 2006) to hatcheries days after oviposition. For example, Sanyal (1984) describes the transport of clutches that were 24hr and “slightly older” by boat from an unnamed island to Sajnekhali; the transport time is not described but the distance given is >100km .so the time for relocating nests is likely to exceed that recommended as a best practice (see Limpus et al., 1979; Parmenter, 1980; Mortimer, 1999; SToI, 2011).
Table 9. Records of olive ridley nests relocated to sea turtle hatcheries in the South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal. Numbers of nests, eggs, hatchlings, and hatching success may not be representative of the entire nesting season/s indicated. ‘-’ indicates no information reported. Av.- Average.
| Location | Nesting Season/s | # Nests &/or # Eggs | Hatching Success (HS) &/or # Hatchlings | Source |
| Bhagabatpur | 1983 | 4 nests, 600 eggs | Av. HS 20% | Banerjee, 1985a, b |
| Bhagabatpur & Sajnekhali | pre. 1983 | – | ~2,000 hatchlings | Raut & Nandi, 1985; Chowdhury et al., 2006 |
| 1984-1999 | – | ~1,000 hatchlings | ||
| 2000/01 | 1,928 eggs | Av. HS 10% | ||
| Sajnekhali | 1983 | 3 nests, 485 eggs | Av. HS 51% | Sanyal, 1984 |
There has been widespread use of hatcheries over time in India to protect sea turtle nests against predators and poachers and other human activities. The number and longevity of hatcheries in each state or district varies and should not be the sole indicator of conservation effort. Local factors such as nesting numbers and density, availability of resources, and involvement of volunteers may determine whether a large number of hatcheries operate for short periods at different times (e.g. hatcheries in Karnataka) or fewer hatcheries operate for decades (e.g. as seen in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Chennai, Tamil Nadu).
This review reveals varied rates of hatching success for nests relocated to hatcheries in India, albeit within the ranges described for hatcheries elsewhere in the region (see Phillott, 2018; Phillott et al., 2018 a, b). As the majority of nests in some states (e.g. Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka) and the majority of nests on important beaches in other states (e.g. Besant Nagar in Tamil Nadu) are relocated to hatcheries, it is important to understand how the hatchling production of this ex situ conservation strategy can be optimised. The lack of detailed information about hatchery practices in the available literature does not allow us to identify specific practices (e.g. egg collection, handling, and transport techniques (see Limpus et al., 1979; Parmenter, 1980; Mortimer, 1999; SToI, 2011) that could be modified to improve hatching success. Further research will now be conducted to acquire relevant details through face to face interviews with hatchery personnel.
This work is part of a larger project examining sea turtle hatcheries in India, which was supported by a Science Grant from SWOT (The State of the World’s Sea Turtles). Much of the older literature, especially unpublished reports, were obtained through the invaluable Bibliography at Sea Turtles of India (https://www.seaturtlesofindia.org/library/bibliography/). Our thanks to Kartik Shanker and Muralidharan Manoharakrishan for their assistance in obtaining other literature and for discussions about hatcheries in India.
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